先行的结构特点
先行词是一个词
通常是名词,也可以是代词。先行词是一个短语(名词短语)
In the Europe,as else where,multi-media group have been increasingly successful groups which bring together television,radio,newspapers,magazines and publishing houses that work in relation to one another.(黑体部分为句词短语)在欧洲,像在其他地方一样,多媒体集团越来越成功了。这些集团把相互间的联系密切的电视台、电台、报纸、杂志以及出版社组合到了一起。先行词是一个分句(从句)
He said that he had no time,which isn't true.他说他没有时间,事实并非如此。先行词是一个完整的句子
My girlfriend likes dancing with other guys,which really drives me crazy.我女友喜欢和别的小伙子跳舞,这让我十分恼火。
先行词的位置特点
先行词与关系词一般情况下是紧靠在一起的,有三种情况先行词与关系词之间插入了其他成分。
- 先行词 + 其他定语 + 定语从句
The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by plant must be dissolved in the soil solution before they can be taken into the root.土壤中可供植物利用的矿物质只有先溶解在土壤中,然后才能被植物的根部吸收。 - 先行词 + 状语 + 定语从句
先行词 与 关系词之间插入一个状语,这个状语一般修饰主句的谓语动词
Never leave that until tomorrow which you can do today.今日事,今日毕。
Politics is probably the only business in the world where they spend the most money when they have the least number of available customers to pitch to.政治可能是世界上唯一的一个投资最多而顾客最少的生意。
If there is anything in the world that a young man should be more grateful for than another,it is the poverty which necessitates starting life under very great disadvantage.对于青年人来说,如果世上真的有什么事物是他最应该感激的,那就是贫穷,因为贫穷能促使他在非常恶劣的环境下开创生活。 - 作主语的先行词 + 谓语部分 + 定语从句
It can be predicted,however,that from time to time questions will arise which will require specific scientific answers.不过,可以预见的是,将来会经常有问题出现,需要给出专门的科学的回答。
如何判断先行词
结合定语从句的意思
定语从句的内容必然与先行词密切相关的
Even when homeless individuals manage to find a shelter that will give them three meals a day and a place to sleep at night,a good number still spend the bulk of each day wandering the street.(根据定语从句的意思:只有shelter提供吃和住)即使个别无家可归者设法找到了可为其提供一日三餐和栖身之处的收容所,但仍有大量无家可归者每天的大部分时间流浪街头。-
结合定语从句中的关键词
natural scientist与social science构成反义对照关系
结合定语从句谓语单复数
结合定语从句的关系词:比如who一定指人,which一定指物。
结合先行词的结构特点(先行词可能是词、短语、分句、完整的句子)
结合先行词的位置特点(会被定语、状语、谓语分隔)
关系代词whose
whose后面必须接一个名词,不能单独作用。算作是关系形容词或者叫关系限定词。whose既可以指人也可以指物。
President-elect Bush inherits a nation whose citizens will be ready to assist him in the conduct of his large responsibilities.当选总统布什接手的这人家,其全体国民都将会协助他业履行自己的重大责任。
介词 + 关系代词
一般主要是which,其他包括whom和whose前面会加介词或介词短语
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看从句选介词(定语从句中的动词、形容词和名词构成固定搭配,这种情况下,定语从句一般是不完整的,动词、形容词和名词充当定语从句的某一修饰成分。介词可以放在关系词前面,也可以放在定语从句中。)
- 看从句的动词:所用介词与定语从句中的动词构成固定搭配(最常见)
The girl with whom you work is his girl friend.和你一起工作的那个女孩是他的女朋友。
He is the man on whom I think you can depend.我认为他是你可以依靠的人。
介词也可以与定语从句中的其他动词构成固定搭配
Homo erectus is the name commonly given to the primate species from which humans are believed to have evolved. homo erectus一词通常用来指灵长灵动物,据说人类就是从灵长类动物进行而来的。(from与不定式动词evolved构成固定搭配evolve from由...进化而来) - 看从句的形容词:所用介词与定语从句中的形容词构成固定搭配(比较常见)
He referred me to some reference books with which I am not very familiar.他让我参考的几本书我一本也不熟悉。
有时形容词不是谓语部分中的,而是作定语的形容词
He is her son,than whom a kinder son does not exist.他是她的儿子,再也找不到像他这么好的儿子了。 - 看从句的名词:所用介词与定语从句中的某个句词构成固定搭配(较少用)
I am sending you an inquiry,to which your prompt attention is highly appreciated.兹寄去询价单一纸,望尽快办理,不胜感激。(attention to构成固定搭配,表示“处理”)
Many hypersomniacs suffer from narcolepsy,for which the primary symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness.许多嗜睡的人都患有嗜睡病,其早期症状就是在白天都极度想睡觉。(symptom for构成固定搭配,表示“是...症状”)
- 看从句的动词:所用介词与定语从句中的动词构成固定搭配(最常见)
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看先行词选介词(介词只能放在关系词前面)
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介词与先行词构成固定搭配
相关的介词短语搭配常见的有:with ease,at the rate,in the direction,to the extent,to the degree, at the temperature,by the means,by the mode,in a culture,in practice等等。The ease with which Mr.Zhang cracked the complex sentence was unbelievable.对于这个复杂的句子,张老师能够如此轻而易举地分析出来,这真是让人难以置信。(固定搭配短语with ease表示“熟练地,轻而易举地”)
可拆分为:
1)Mr.zhang cracked the complex sentence with ease and the ease was unbelievable.
2)The ease (Mr.Zhang cracked the complex sentence with ease) was unbelievable.
3)The ease (Mr.Zhang cracked the complex sentence with which) was unbelievable.
4)The ease (with which Mr.Zhang cracked the complex sentence) was unbelievable.About a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction,and the rate at which they are being destroyed has increased.约有1000种动物濒临灭绝折危险,而且它们受残害的速度日益加快。
可拆分为:
1)About a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction. They are being destroyed at this rate and the rate has increased.
2)The rate (they are being destroyed at this rate) has increased.
3)The rate (they are being destroyed at which) has increased.
4)The rate (at which they are being destroyed) has increased.
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总结
看从句选介词时,定语从句一般不完整,“介词 + 关系代词”在定语从句中作补足语,补充说明从句中的某个动词、形容词或名词
看先行词选介词,定语从句的意思是完整的,“介词 + 关系代词”在定语从句中作状语,修饰从句的谓语动词
以上两种情况最为常用。看句义选介词
这种情况下关系词前面的介词完全根据句子的意思而定,不是固定搭配。
There are things you would love to hear but you will never hear it from the person from whom you would like to hear it,but don't be deaf to hear it from the person who says it with heart.有些话你很想听到,然而却无法从你希望的那个人口中听到,但如果有其他人用心对你说出了那些话,不要对它充耳不闻。(from既不与先行词person构成固定搭配,也不写定语从句中的某个词构成固定搭配,而是完全出于句子意思的需要与from这个词本身的意思密切相关,它表示“来自(某个地方)”)表示所属关系或部分与整体的关系时用介词of
The company,of which Max Harrison was until recently the chairman,has made loss of three million pounds this year.这家公司今年亏损达三百万英镑,直到前不久Max Harrison还是它的董事长。
The total cultivated area is 13,000 acres,of which 10,000 acres are irrigated fields.可耕地的总面积为13,000英亩,其中10,000英亩为可灌溉粮田。固定的介宾结构
如:in this case,in one's honor,with one's help等,如果出现在定语从句中,则相应地变成in which case,in whose honor,with whose help.这种定语从句中的关系代词which/whose前面的介词in/with是从原来的短语中继承过来的。
He may be late,in which case we should wait for him.他可能要迟到,如果是这样,我们就应该等等他。(in which case由短语in this case变过来,which指前面整个句子he may be late)
He was a great writer,in whose honor this bronze statue was built.定语从句的倒装结构
"介词 + 关系代词"这种结构往往还伴随着从句采用倒装结构,具体结构为:“介词 + 关系代词 + 从句谓语 + 从句主语”即将谓语放在主语前面的倒装结构。采用倒装结构是因为主语较复杂,所以按照英语的尾重原则。
They're all groaning about soaring health budgets,the fastest-growing component of which are pharmaceutical costs.他们所有人都在抱怨高涨的医疗预算,其中增长最快的部分是药品费用。(of表示部分、所属关系)
When you graduate from here,you exit with thousands of pages of personal text on which are inscribed beliefs and values shaped by years of education,family interactions,relationships,experiences.当你从这里毕业时,你会带着数千页的人生教科书走出校门,在这本教科书里铭刻着经过多年教育、家庭的作用、社会关系以及个人经历所形成的信念和价值观。(inscribed on构成固定搭配)-
"介词 + 关系代词 + to do"结构
“介词 + 关系代词 + 定语从句”结构简化为“介词 + 关系代词 + to do”结构
1)The farmer used wood to build a house in which he could store grains.
2)The farmer used wood to build a house in which to store grains.(与主句主语相同,所以可以省略)
进一步简化(去掉关系词which,此时必须把介词in移到句末)
3)The farmer used wood to build a house to store grains in.
1完全为一个定语从句作后置定语 2为半定语从句半不定式混合形式作后置定语 3完全是一个不定式作后置定语 均修饰house。
关系代词as
as引导的限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句有着根本的不同。
- as引导非限定性定语从句
as引导非限定性定语从句情况比较常见。
特点主要有两个:一、as所指代的先行词通常都是一个完整的句子。二、as引导的定语从句位置很灵活,可以在句首、句中、句末。
which也可以引导非限定性定语从句。- as引导非限定性定语从句放句首
先行词可以出现在as之后,这点不同于which及任何其他关系词,which及其他关系词所指代的先行词必须出现在它们的前面,因此which引导的非限定性定语从句不能放在句首。
As is so often pointed out,knowledge is a two-edged weapon which can be used equally for good or evil.正如人们常常指出的,知识是一把双刃剑,既可以用于造福,也同样可以用来为害。 - as引导的非限定性定语从句可放在句中
as将主句往往分隔成两个成分,分析句子时要跳过这个as引导的从句,直接将从句的前后两个成分联系起来看,这样才便于理解。as所指代的先行词是被as分隔开的主句。which也可以放在句中,但which先行词必须出现在其前面。
Stratford-on-Avon,as we all know,has only one industry-William Shakespeare-but there are two distinctly separate and increasingly hostile branches.众所周知,Stratford-on-Avon只有一个产业,即威廉-莎士比亚,但是存在着两个明显不同且日益敌对的分支。(若用which,吸能指代Stratford-on-Avon,而汪能指代整个主句)
There is,as has been suggested,a growing body of research literature in journalism and broadcasting,but very little significant attention has been devoted to the study of the interview itself.正如前面已经提及的,对新闻与广播的研究文献越来越多,但是却很少有关注新闻采访本身的研究。(which代替as的话,前面为there is结构,它不是一个名词,因而无法作which的先行词) - as引导的非限定性定语从句可放在句末
在as引导定语从句中,as有“正好...”、“就像..."、“由...而知”的含义,当主句和从句在内容上一致时,或者说从句内容是顺着主句的意思说下来时,通常用as;若主句和从句在内容上不一致,或从句的内容对主句的内容起消极作用,即对主句内容起反对、排斥、否定等作用时,则用which。
She has married again,as was expected.她又结婚了,正如人们所预料的那样。
She has married again,which was unexpected. 她又结婚了,这真出乎人们预料。
She is very careful,as her work shows.她很细心,这从她的工作中就可看得出来。
The young man cheated his friend of much money,which was was disgraceful.这个年经人骗了他朋友很多钱,这真可耻。
- as引导非限定性定语从句放句首
- as引导限定性定语从句
这种情况只能用由such,the same,as修饰的先行词的后面。as在定语从句中可以作主语、宾语、表语。as的先行词可以是人,也可以是物。- as在定语从句中作主语
He is not such a man as would leave his work half done.他不是那种会将工作半途而废的人。
The new map of the ocean floor shows the locations of twice as many undersea volcanoes as were previously thought to exist.新的洋底地图显示出的海底火山的位置是人们以前知道的两倍。 - as在定语从句中作宾语
He is not the same playboy as we knew.他不再是我们所知道的那个花花公子了。
He tried to make as few mistakes as he could avoid.他尽量避免少犯错误。 - as在定语从句中作表语
He is not such a fool as we would assume him to be.他并不像我们想象的那样傻。
- as在定语从句中作主语
关系代词than
than引导的定语从句有如下用法特点:
than可作关系代词引导定语从句,在从句中一般作主语(也可作宾语)
than前面的主句需有形容词的比较级形式
-
比较级所修饰的名词即为先行词
作主语:
These proposals sought to place greater restrictions on the use and copying of digital information than exist in traditional media.这此提案试图对数字化信息的使用与复制实行比传统媒体更加严格的限制。
Don't give him more money than is needed,since money will burn a hole in his pocket.不要多给他钱,他需要多少就给多少,因为他有钱就花光。
作宾语:
He soon found it easy to make more money by thieving than his father had done by lifetime of honest work. 很快他就发现,通过盗窃所得的钱比他老爸一辈子辛勤劳动挣来的钱要多得多。
关系代词but
用法特点:
- but作关系代词具有否定意义,相当于that...not,后面接的定语从句在形式上是肯定的,意义上是否定的。
- 主句中被but所修饰的先行词会被一个否定词修饰,也就是说but常与具有否定意义的主句连用,主句否定+定语从句否定构成双重否定,表达肯定意思。
- but可指人也可指物,在句中作主语或宾语。
- but通常引导限定性定语从句。
There is no man but errs.人必犯错。
There are very few but admire his talents.很少有人赞赏他的才干的。
There are very few people in this club but he knows.这个俱乐部里的人他几乎都认识。
缩合关系代词what
- what不能指代先行词,即what前面不能有名词,可以理解为先行词和关系代词的结合体(the things that,all that或something that)。
- what单独使用,即其后面可以不接名词
通常情况下的用法,what可以表示物、人。相当于the thing that或the person that。不具有"什么"这样的疑问意义。即可以看作是特殊的定语从句,又可以看作是名词从句。
She is not what she used to be.她不再是以前的她了。
Show me what you have written.把你写的东西给我看看。 - what后面可以接名词
what作关系形容词,"what + 名词"相当于“all the + 名词 + that”,意思为“所有的...,尽可能多的...”,what一般表示物,不表示人。
What money I have has been given to you.我身上所有的钱都给你了。(what money = all the money that)
Lend me what reference books you have on the subject.请把你所有的有关这个研究专题的参考书借给我。(what reference books = all the reference books)
名词前面还可以添加其他限定词修饰名词,比如little,"what + little + 名词"相当于“all the little + 名词 + that”,表示“仅有的这点东西”
The accident completely wiped out what little sight he had left.这次事故使他原本仅有的一点视力也完全丧失了。(what little sight = all the little sight that) - what用在一些固定结构中
表示“所谓的”:what is called ,what can be called,what we call,what used to call.
其他结构:what they described as,what they regarded as,what you may see as等等。
例句看原书。
关系副词when
关系代词在定语从句中主要是作主语或宾语(也可作表语或宾语补足语),而关系副词只能在从句中作状语,修饰从句谓语动词。
关系副词主要有:when,where和why,分别作时间状语、地点状语和原因状语。
- when在定语从句中作时间状语,修饰从句谓语动词。
- 其前面的先行词必须是表示时间的名词,如day,year,time等。
- 可引导限定性和非限定性定语从句。
- when在定语从句中作时间状语才可以用when作连接词,如果定语从句缺少主语或宾语(即使先行词表示时间),而不是缺少状语我们就要用which或that引导定语从句。
I'll never forget the time which i spent on campus. (缺少宾语)
I'll never forget the day when we first met in the park.(缺少时间状语) - when引导定语从句与引导状语从句的区别:
- 结构上不同,when引导的定语从句前面有先行词,引导的时间状语从句一般when前面没表示时间的名词。
- when的作用不同,when引导的定语从句when指代表示时间的先行词,在定语从句中作时间状语,修饰从句的谓语;when引导的时间状语从句when不做从句的任何成分,只起连接主句与从句的作用,这时的时间状语从句修饰的是主句的谓语。
- when的译法不同,when引导定语从句时,如从句谓语是过去时,则when表示从句谓语动作发生的过去时间,一般译成"当时"、“那时”;如从句谓语表示将来动作,则常译成“那时”、“届时”;when引导的时间状语从句通常都是译成“当...时间”。
- when也可以像what那样,用作一个缩合关系词
To her,the arguments about little things and other obstacles she and her husband face are forgettable when she thins back to when she first met her husband.对于她来说,当她回忆起初遇丈夫时情景,就把他们之间的关于生活琐事的争议抛到九宵云外了。(第二个when为一个综合关系词,表示the day when she first met her husband.)
关系副词where
- 关系副词where的用法特点有
1、where在定语从句中作地点状语,修饰从句谓语动词;
2、其前面的先行词通常是表示地点的名词,如place,house等;
3、可引导限定性和非限定性定语从句。 - 先行词为表示地点的名词,当定语从句不缺少主语或宾语,而是缺少状语要用where;相反如果缺少主语或宾语,不缺少状语则用which或that引导定语从句。
This is the town where I spent my childhood.(不缺少主语或宾语,而是缺少地点状语)
This is the town which I told you about before.(缺少宾语,那么关系词要充当这一宾语,用which) - 一些抽象的名词,比如dream,case,situation,point等,这种不是地点的名词可以解释成一种“含有地点意义的名词”也可以作where的先行词。
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如果一个定语从句不缺少主语或宾语,而是缺少状语,并且先行词是除了表示时间的名词(这种情况下用when)和表示原因的名词(这种情况下用why)以外的其他任何名词,此时都要用where引导定语从句(造成一些很“离谱”的先行词)。
Speech has to be triggered and this depends on interaction between the mother and the child,where the mother recognizes the cues and sighals in the child's crying,smiling,and responds to them.语言是需要培养的,而这又需要母亲和孩子之间的互动作用,在这种互动过程中,母亲可以从孩子的哭笑中捕捉到一些信息和信号,并且给予它们反馈。(先行词为interaction,完全不是一个表示地点的名词) - 如何区分where引导的地点状语从句和定语从句
- 结构上的不同,where引导的定语从句前必然要有表示地点的名词作先行词;where引导的地点状语从句前面往往没有表示地点的名词。
- where的作用不同,where引导的定语从句指代的表示地点的先行词在定语从句中作地点状语,修饰从句的谓语;where引导的地点状语从句时,where不在从句中充当任何成分,只起连接主句和从句的作用,where引导的地点状语从句修饰主句的谓语,作主句谓语的地点状语。
- 定语从句中的where才可以转换成"介词 + which"的结构,地点状语从句的where不能。
Would you please put the book where it belongs? (状语从句)
Would you please put the book to which it belongs?*错误 - where作为缩合关系词:
We dstopped for a minute to walk out to where we had seen George Mills work in the mud the night before.我们停留了片刻,出来走到我们曾经看到乔治米尔斯前一天晚上在泥里工作的地方。(这里有where = the place where)
关系副词why
用法特点:
- why在定语从句中作原因状语,修饰从句的谓语动词;
- 其前先行词必须是表示原因的名词,如reason,cause等;
- 只引导限定性定语从句。这点不同于when和where。
- 常常把表示原因的先行词省去,而只剩下why引导的从句:This is why I didn't come here.
This is the reason why I didn't come here.
关系副词中没有how
定语从句关系副词中没有how.表示方式有四种句型:
1.the way + 从句
2.the way that + 从句
3.the way in which + 从句
4.the manner that + 从句
没有the way how + 从句这种结构。
关系词后带有插入语的定语从句
- 定语从句的关系词后面插入一个主谓结构
往往是一些表达个人主观观点的主谓结构:they think,he said,they believe,he claimed,they assume等等。 - 作主语的关系词 + 插入语 + 定语从句的谓语部分
Many students face problems when they have to study a subject that they think is difficult.很多学生如果必须学一门他们认为很难的课程时,就会遇到很多问题。 - 作宾语的关系词 + 插入语 + 定语从句的主谓部分
What is harder to establish is whether the productivity revolution that businessmen assume they are presiding over is for real.商界人士自以为他们正在进行一场生产力革命,但这是否是真正意义上的生产力革命,对此更加难以证实。 - what引导的从句中带 一个主谓结构的插入语
There was a very interesting remark in a book by an Englishman that I read recently giving what he though was a reason for this American characteristic.我最近看了一本书,它是由一个英国人写的,我还记得书里有一句十分有趣的话,作者认为这句话说明了美国人为什么是这种性格。 - 定语从句的关系词后面插入一个其他成分
关系词后面还可以插入其他各种成分,尤其是各类从句。
Real friends are those who,when you've made a fool of yourself,don't feel that you've done a permanent job.真正的朋友就是,即使你出了洋相,他们也不会认为你以后还会这样。(插入一个时间从句)
并列定语从句
是指两个或两个以个的定语从句,通过and,but,or等并列连词连接起来共同修饰同一个先行词。
The errors,occurring in the exam often result from the things that you don't know or that you think you know.考试中所犯的错误,往往是因为某些知识点你不知道或者你认为自己知道。
双层定语从句
特点如下:
1、一个先行词首先被一个限定性定语从句所修饰,来表示一个特定意思。然后,这个“先行词 + 限定性定语从句”再被另外一个限定性定语从句所修饰。
2、不能用连词and,but,or连接它们。
He is the only person that we know who speaks so many foreign languages.他是我所认识的人当中唯一一位会说这么多外语的人。(第一层定语从句that we know的先行词为the only person;第二层定语从句who speaks so many foreign languages的先行词为the only person that we know.)
What was it you started to tell me in the restaurant that you didn't understand about me? 你刚才在餐馆里想要告诉我的,就你不了解我的是什么来着?(第一层定语从句you started to tell me in the restaurant的先行词为what;第二层定语从句that you didn't understand about me的先行词为what...you started to tell me in the restaurant.)