BSCM

Basic of Supply Chain Management

Session 1: Introduction to Supply Chain Management

Purpose

Manufacturing companies see their primary activity as the transformation of ideas and materials into products and services.Most manufacturers require interactions with suppliers of raw materials and components and with customers who either distribute, resell,or consume their products.

制造企业把他们的主要活动看作是把想法和材料转化为产品和服务。大多数制造商需要与原材料和零部件供应商以及分销、转售或消费其产品的客户进行互动。

The purpose of this section is to introduce the participant to the following:

本节的目的是向参与者介绍以下内容:

• how manufacturing creates value for producers and customers and creates wealth for society as a whole.
  制造业如何为生产者和消费者创造价值，为整个社会创造财富。

• the choices manufacturers make in order to compete
  制造商为了竞争而做出的选择

• the role of the manufacturer in the supply chain
  制造商在供应链中的角色

• the MPC system and processes
  MPC系统和流程

• the impact of technology and new productivity improvement systems and philosophies on conventional MPC
  技术和新的生产力改进系统和理念对传统MPC的影响

In addition, our goal in this session is to introduce many of the concepts that we will review in the nine sessions following Session 1.

此外，我们本节课的目标是介绍我们将在第一节课后的九节课上回顾的许多概念。

Introduction to Manufacturing

制造业介绍

Role of Manufacturing

制造业的角色

Wealth Creation

价值创造

The primary goal of manufacturing is to create value for producers and customers. In this way wealth is created for society as a whole.

制造业的首要目标是为生产者和消费者创造价值。这样就为整个社会创造了财富。

For manufacturers, value is created by transforming raw materials and ideas into finished products and services that meet customer needs.This process incurs the cost of materials, labor, and overhead. When the product is sold for more than the cost to make it, it creates a profit that represents the value added to the product. Profit represents wealth for stockholders and generates a return on their investment in the business.

对于制造商来说，价值是通过将原材料和想法转化为满足客户需求的成品和服务来创造的。这个过程会增加材料、人力和开销的成本。当产品以高于成本的价格销售时，它产生的利润代表产品的附加值。利润代表股东的财富，并为他们的投资带来回报。

Value to the customer

对客户的价值

An important objective of manufacturing is to provide value to the customer. Value is defined as the worth of an item,good,or service. It also can be defined as what the customer is willing to pay for.

制造业的一个重要目标是为客户提供价值。价值被定义为物品、商品或服务的价值。它也可以定义为客户愿意支付的价格。

As you will learn later in this course, through productivity improvement systems such as lean manufacturers strive continuously to eliminate waste, or unnecessary costs, from the production process because customers are not willing to pay for it. Through quality improvement systems, manufacturers can use methods to determine the features and functions of a product that customers find to be of value.

正如您将在本课程后面学到的那样，通过精益生产等生产力改进系统，不断努力消除生产过程中的浪费或不必要的成本，因为客户不愿为此付费。通过质量改进系统，制造商可以使用方法来确定客户认为有价值的产品的特性和功能。

Value can be provided by making products that meet customer needs. In manufacturing, the focus is on the conversion of raw materials -- such as minerals, metals, wood, or electronic components -- into products that meet customer needs, such as automobiles, houses, and electronics.

价值可以通过生产满足客户需求的产品来提供。在制造业中，重点是将原材料(如矿物、金属、木材或电子元件)转化为满足客户需求的产品，如汽车、房屋和电子产品。

Global citizenship

全球公民

United Nations Global Compact

联合国全球契约

The UN Global Compact is a strategic policy initiative for businesses interested in social justice and sustainable development. Sustainable development balances current resource consumption without compromising the well-being of future generations. Let's look at some of the important aspects of the Compact and its implications for manufacturing and service industry firms. It can be downloaded at www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/news_events/8.1/GC_brochure_FINAL.pdf

《联合国全球契约》是对关注社会公正和可持续发展的企业的战略政策倡议。可持续发展平衡了当前的资源消耗，但不损害后代的福祉。让我们来看看契约的一些重要方面及其对制造业和服务业公司的影响。可以从www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/news_events/8.1/GC_brochure_FINAL.pdf 下载

Voluntary

志愿者

Membership in the Global Compact is voluntary. Through the influence of the UN and large global corporations, there are more than 8,000 corporate participants in the program. Membership requires the signature of a company's chief executive and the endorsement of its highest-level governance body.

加入全球契约是自愿的。通过联合国和大型跨国公司的影响，该项目有8000多名企业参与者。成员资格需要公司首席执行官的签名，以及公司最高层治理机构的认可。

Alignment with Global Compact principles

与全球契约原则保持一致

Member companies agree to align their operations with ten key principles in four areas as shown in the visual: human rights, labor practices, environment, and anti-corruption. Note that environmental concerns make up only one of the four areas.

成员公司同意将其运作与四个领域的十个关键原则结合起来，如图所示:人权、劳工惯例、环境和反腐败。注意，环境问题只占四个领域中的一个。

Adoption of the UN Global Compact Management Model

采用联合国全球契约管理模式

Of particular relevance to manufacturers and service firms with supply chain issues is the UN Global Compact Management Model, which we will discuss shortly. The management model provides detailed guidelines for incorporating the ten principles in business strategies and operations.

与制造商和服务公司供应链问题特别相关的是联合国全球契约管理模式，我们将很快讨论这一模式。该模型为在业务策略和操作中合并这十条原则提供了详细的指导方针。

Ten Principles

十项原则

Visual 1-9 shows how the ten universally accepted Global Compact principles have been organized into the four areas mentioned above.

图1-9展示了被普遍接受的十项全球契约原则如何被组织成上述四个方面。

ten_principles.jpg

UN Global Compact Management Model

联合国全球契约管理模式

For global manufacturing and service companies, the UN Global Compact Management Model provides guidance for developing a corporate sustainability strategy consistent with the ten human rights, labor, environment, and anti-corruption principles. The assumption is that companies incorporating sustainability principles into their operations and culture are better able to widen their view of risk and opportunity and increase long-term value creation.

对于全球制造业和服务业企业，联合国全球契约管理模式为制定符合人权、劳工、环境和反腐败十项原则的企业可持续发展战略提供了指导。其假设是，将可持续性原则纳入运营和文化的公司，能够更好地拓宽他们对风险和机遇的看法，并增加长期价值创造。

The UN Global Compact Management Model shown in the visual has the look and feel of a corporate performance improvement method used by manufacturing and service industry firms. Shown in the diagram below are descriptions of the 6 steps of the model. It can be downloaded at www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/news_events/9.1_news_archives/2010_06_17/UN_Global_Compact_Management_Model.pdf.

UN_Global_Compact_Management_Model.jpg

图中所示的联合国全球紧凑管理模型，具有制造业和服务业企业使用的企业绩效改进方法的外观和感觉。下表显示了模型的6个步骤的描述。可以从www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/news_events/9.1_news_archives/20120106_17/un_global_compact_management_model.pdf
下载。

Why does the UN Global Compact single out supply chain partners as an important factor in a firm's ability to comply with its ten principles?

为什么联合国全球契约将供应链合作伙伴作为企业遵守其十项原则能力的重要因素？

Manufacturing Business Model

制造业的商业模式

A manufacturing company's business model includes how it defines its products and customers, or markets; designs products and services; manages material flows; and provides customer service and support -- all of which support the company's goal of making a profit and competing effectively in the marketplace over time.

制造公司的商业模式包括如何定义其产品和客户，或市场;设计产品和服务;管理物料流;并提供客户服务和支持——所有这些都支持公司盈利的目标，并随着时间的推移在市场上进行有效的竞争。

Defining Products and Customers

定义产品和客户

Establishing what you are going to sell and who you are going to sell it to is one of the most fundamental decisions for a manufacturer. These two issues are closely related.

确定你要卖什么，卖给谁是制造商最基本的决定之一。这两个问题是密切相关的。

There are many decisions to be made in defining products. These include

• product positioning (quality versus price)
• breadth of product line
• price
• quality
• brand name or generic
• design
• packaging
• returns allowed.

在定义产品时要做很多决定。这些包括：

• 产品定位(质量与价格)
• 产品线的宽度
• 价格
• 质量
• 品牌或通用名称
• 设计
• 包装
• 允许退货

Similarly, there are many decisions to be made in defining customers, or markets:

• type of customers; for example, industrial, consumer, institutional, and government
• market segments
• sales and distribution channels
• market share and profitability

同样，在定义客户或市场时也要做出许多决定:

• 类型的客户;例如，工业、消费者、机构和政府
• 细分市场
• 销售和分销渠道
• 市场份额和盈利能力

The definition of products and customers will have a major influence on production decisions, such as

• choice of manufacturing environment -- make-to-order (MTO), make-to-stock (MTS), assemble-to-order (ATO), or engineer-to-order (ETO)
• choice of manufacturing process -- project, intermittent, or repetitive, flow or continuous flow.

产品和客户的定义将对生产决策产生重大影响，例如

• 生产环境的选择——定货生产(MTO)、备货生产(MTS)、定货组装(ATO)或按单设计生产(ETO)
• 选择制造过程——项目、间歇或重复、流或连续流。

In addition, product definition influences and in turn is influenced by product design.

此外，产品定义也会影响产品设计，反过来也被产品设计影响。

Designing Products and Processes

产品设计和流程

The downstream success of a product starts when the products and processes are first being defined and designed. The design affects not only the product, but also the downstream planning system parameters, manufacturing processes, ongoing support, and return on investment.

产品的下游成功始于产品和过程第一次被定义和设计的时候。设计不仅影响产品，还影响下游规划系统参数、制造过程、持续支持和投资回报。

The product and supporting processes should be designed to
产品和支持过程应该设计成：

• meet customer needs and provide value. Techniques, such as quality function deployment, which we will review in Session 9, can be used to determine technical requirements based on customer input, or the voice of the customer. Meeting the customer's needs is the most important characteristic for a manufactured product. Concepts such as participative design/engineering, simultaneous engineering, and concurrent engineering may be used to enhance the design with input from key stakeholders.

  满足客户需求，提供价值。技术，例如质量功能部署（我们将在第9节中回顾），可以根据客户的输入或客户的声音来确定技术需求。满足客户的需求是生产产品最重要的特点。诸如参与式设计/工程、同步工程和并行工程等概念可以通过关键利益相关者的投入来增强设计。

• be cost effective. Both fixed and variable costs will have a major influence on sales price and subsequent profit. If manufacturing costs are too high to achieve acceptable profit, decisions on whether to (1) make or buy the product or (2) put cost-reduction methods into place must be made.

  让成本有效。固定成本和可变成本都会对销售价格和后续利润产生重大影响。如果制造成本太高，无法获得可接受的利润，就必须决定(1)生产或购买产品还是(2)采取成本削减方法。

• provide quality. Customers today expect high-quality products and often are willing to pay more for quality. Quality considerations start when designing the product. What materials will be used? How will the product be assembled? What level of control can be achieved?

  提供品质。今天的顾客期望高质量的产品，并且往往愿意为质量付出更多。设计产品时，首先要考虑质量问题。使用什么材料?产品如何装配?可以达到什么控制级别?

• be built or provided efficiently. Efficiency reduces costs, eliminates wasteful activities, and leads to better customer satisfaction through on-time production and deliveries.

有效地建造或供应。效率降低成本，消除浪费的活动，并通过准时生产和交付引起更好的客户满意度。

• accommodate planning parameters. Planning parameters need to be taken into account in the design of products and processes. These include cumulative lead time, order quantity modifiers such as scrap and testing requirements, safety stock or buffers, and capacity.

适应计划参数。在产品和工艺的设计中需要考虑到规划参数。这些包括累计提前期、订货量修正因子，如废料和测试需求、安全库存或缓冲以及容量。

Project Management

项目管理

Designing products and processes can be coordinated as projects if the endeavor has a specific objective to be met within predetermined time and dollar limitations. Project management coordinates the organizing , planning, scheduling, directing, controlling, and monitoring of project activities to ensure that project objectives are met.

设计产品和过程可以作为项目进行协调，如果努力的目标是在预定的时间和金钱限制内实现。项目管理协调项目活动的组织、计划、调度、指导、控制和监控，以确保项目目标的实现。

Managing Material Flow

管理物料流

• Acquisition -- Planning the acquisition and use of production resources to meet demand through demand management, materials planning, and procurement

获取——通过需求管理、物料计划和采购，计划获取和使用生产资源以满足需求

• Manufacturing operations 制造作业

  • Scheduling -- Schedule production operations as close to when customers need products as possible; this reduces unnecessary inventory or lost sales.
    进度安排——尽可能接近客户需要产品时的生产操作;这减少了不必要的库存或销售损失。

  • Production -- Execute production operations efficiently; this reduces waste of materials or time.
    生产——高效执行生产操作;这减少了物料和时间的浪费。

• Distribution -- Manage the flow of materials to and from customers. With reverse logistics, products may be returned from customers to suppliers for the purpose of repair, recycling, or remanufacturing. With green reverse logistics, for example, the manufacturer takes back products or packaging for reuse or disposal in an environmentally sensitive way. Products may be remanufactured through refurbishment to a like-new condition. Remanufacturing is a green concept because it requires fewer resources to refurbish the product than to manufacture it from raw materials.

  配送——管理物料进出客户。通过逆向物流，产品可以从客户返回到供应商，用于维修、回收或再制造。例如，在绿色逆向物流中，制造商回收产品或包装，以一种对环境敏感的方式进行再利用或处置。产品可以通过类似『一样新』条件的翻新重新制造。再制造是一个绿色的概念，因为与原材料相比，翻新产品所需的资源更少。

Providing Customer Service and Support

提供客户服务及支持

Customer service and product support are keys to customer retention and loyalty. We like all know of someone who has said "I'll never buy that again" after receiving poor service. Some companies make customer service a strategic goal and set high performance measures to ensure that customers are satisfied.

客户服务和产品支持是客户保留和忠诚的关键。我们都知道有人在接受了很差的服务后说过“我再也不买了”。一些公司将客户服务作为战略目标，并制定了高效的措施以确保客户满意。

Customer service includes
客户服务包括：

• understanding and meeting customer needs
  理解并迎合客户的需求
• two-way communication with customers
  与客户双向沟通
• working with customers to solve design and production problems.
  和客户一起解决设计和生产问题

The concept of customer relationship management (CRM), which is philosophy based on putting the customer first, will be reviewed later in this course. CRM involves the collection and analysis of information to support customers. It also includes account management and order management.

客户关系管理(CRM)的概念是基于客户至上的理念，本课程稍后将对其进行回顾。CRM包括收集和分析信息以支持客户。它还包括账户管理和订单管理。

Global Environment

全球环境

Business Environment

商业环境

Also called the operating environment, the business environment consists of numerous external factors that influence how a company develops their manufacturing environments and production process choices. These factors include global competition, economic, government, and regulatory influences; customer expectations; and corporate social responsibility.

也称为经营环境，商业环境由许多外部因素组成，这些因素影响着公司如何发展其生产环境和生产过程的选择。这些因素包括全球竞争、经济、政府和监管的影响;客户期望;和企业社会责任。

Global Competition 全球竞争

Businesss have to compete with companies from all over the world. Many companies now have global markets.

企业必须与来自世界各地的公司竞争。许多公司现在都有全球市场。

Give an example of an organization that has a global presence. How does this organization differentiate its product and services from its competition?

举一个具有全球影响力的组织的例子。这个组织如何区分它的产品和服务与它的竞争?

Economic, Government, and Regulatory Influences

经济、政府和监管的影响

The world economy affects the global supply chain -- from availability of resources to consumer sales. Similarly, governments and regulatory agencies can enact rules and regulations that influence the global supply chain in many ways.

世界经济影响着全球供应链——从资源供应到消费者销售。类似地，政府和监管机构可以通过制定规章制度在许多方面影响全球供应链。

Why do you think that the global economy affects products you buy locally?
为什么你认为全球经济会影响你在本地购买的产品?

Customer Expectations

客户期望

In one sense, the customer does not buy a product or service, but a solution to a problem or a need. Demand usually is market driven and the supplier must determine characteristics that provide value to the customer and fulfill the customer's needs, such as the following:

从某种意义上说，客户购买的不是产品或服务，而是问题或需求的解决方案。需求通常是由市场驱动的，供应商必须确定为客户提供价值并满足客户需求的特征，例如:

• cost, or price
  成本或价格
• quality
  质量
• speed, in terms of order lead time
  速度，以订单交货时间为准。
• dependability, or pre- and post-sales service
  可靠性，或售前和售后服务
• flexibility, in terms of product and volume
  产品和数量方面的灵活性

Manufacturing Environment and Process Choices

制造环境和制程选择

In the previous section, we reviewed manufacturing's role, business model, and its external influences. In this section, we address how manufacturing responds to external influences in its choice of manufacturing environments and process choices. Note that the terms production environment and manufacturing strategy are sometimes used in place of manufacturing environment to describe the concepts discussed below. We have chosen to use the term manufacturing environment as it is consistent with the APICS Dictionary definition, which also gives production environment as its synonym.

在前一节中，我们回顾了制造业的作用、商业模式及其外部影响。在本节中，我们将讨论制造业在选择制造环境和过程选择时如何对外部影响做出反应。注意，术语“生产环境”和“制造策略”有时被用来代替“制造环境”来描述下面讨论的概念。我们选择使用“制造环境”这个术语，因为它与APICS字典定义一致，并且将“生产环境”作为同义词。

Manufacturing Environment

制造环境

Types of Manufacturing Environments

制造环境的类型

There are five basic manufacturing environments:
有5种基本的制造环境：

• ETO -- Products require a unique engineering design based on customer specifications.
  产品需要根据客户规格进行独特的工程设计。

• MTO -- Manufacturing does not start until an order is received. The product usually is made from standard raw material and possibly some custom-designed components, but does not require as much design lead-time as in ETO.
  生产直到收到订单才开始。该产品通常是由标准的原材料和可能的一些定制设计的部件制成，但不需要像在ETO中那样需要大量的设计时间。

• ATO -- The product is made from standard components or sub-assemblies held in inventory awaiting a customer order for final assembly.
  产品由标准组件或库存中的子组件组成，等待客户的最终组装订单。

• MTS -- The manufacturer produces products and sells them from finished goods inventory. The supply is available before receipt of a customer order.
  制造商生产产品并从成品库存中销售。在收到客户订单之前，就可以供应。

• Mass customization -- The product is made in many different configurations mainly from stock components, but is quickly assembled and in high volume.
  大规模定制——产品主要采用多种不同配置的来自于库存组件，但快速组装，大批量生产。

Determinants of Manufacturing Environments

生产环境的决定因素

The choice of the manufacturing environment is influenced by the following:
生产环境的选择受以下因素的影响:

• Lead time expectations -- Customers have certain expectations with respect to delivery lead time.
  交货期预期——客户对交货期有一定的预期。

• Product design input from customers -- The degree of product design required after receipt of an order will have an effect on lead time.
  来自客户的产品设计输入——收到订单后所要求的产品设计程度将影响交货时间。

• Product volume and variety -- Volume and variety of production will play a significant role in choice of manufacturing environments and process choice.
  产品数量和品种——生产数量和品种将在生产环境和制程选择中发挥重要作用。

• Product life cycle -- The appropriate manufacturing environment for a product might change as the product evolves through the life cycle.
  产品生命周期——产品的适当生产环境可能随着产品生命周期的演变而变化。

lead-time-and-manufacturing-environments.jpg

Volume and Variety Relationships

数量和品种的关系

Volume-and-Variety-Relationships.png

Product volume and variety

产品数量和品种

Refer to the volume and variety matrix shown in Visual 1-23, which relates the choice of manufacturing strategy to the volume and variety of the product being produced.

参考图1-23所示的数量和品种矩阵，将生产策略的选择与所生产的产品的数量和种类联系起来。

Give the manufacturing environment for the following products:
给出以下产品的生产环境:

• wine 酒
• energy plants 能源植物
• large utility transformers 大型电力变压器
• bicycles 自行车
• personal computers 个人电脑

Product Life Cycle and Manufacturing Environment

产品生命周期和生产环境

Product Life Cycle

产品生命周期

Product-Life-Cycle.png

Products typically go through a cycle of introduction to phase-out in five stages:

产品通常经历一个逐步淘汰的周期，分五个阶段:

• Introduction -- Products are designed and introduced with sales promotion and advertising. Costs can be high in this stage.
  介绍——产品被设计和介绍出来，通过促销和广告。这个阶段的成本可能很高。

• Growth -- As the product becomes accepted, production increases and unit cost drops. Competition may arise in this stage.
  成长——随着产品被接受，生产增加，单位成本下降。这个阶段可能会出现竞争。

• Maturity -- The product is well-established in the marketplace. Competing products exists. Some products are in perpetual maturity, such as steel and milk.
  成熟度——产品在市场上是成熟的。竞争产品的存在。有些产品是永久成熟的，如钢铁和牛奶。

• Decline -- Sales volumes decline and profits are reduced. Organizations may introduce new products or improve production methods to reduce costs.
  下降——销售额下降，利润减少。组织可以引入新产品或改进生产方法以降低成本。

• Phase-out -- Some authors add a phase-out stage, where the product is taken off the market. Advertising and promotions are discontinued, production ends, and sales and support may be outsourced.
  逐步淘汰——一些作者添加了一个逐步淘汰阶段，在这个阶段，产品将被撤出市场。广告和促销停止，生产结束，销售和支持可能被外包。

Relationship to Manufacturing Environment

制造环境的关系

Product-Life-Cycle-and-Manufacturing-Environment.png

Companies sometimes find it appropriate to migrate to a different manufacturing environment for certain products. Visual 1-25 shows the types of manufacturing environment choices that can be more appropriate in different phases of the product life cycle. For example:

企业有时会发现，为了某些产品迁移到不同的生产环境是合适的。图1-25展示了在产品生命周期的不同阶段更适合的制造环境选择类型。例如:

• A product is built in the introduction stage as a prototype using ETO and then moves to MTO during the growth stage as volume increases.
  产品在引入阶段作为原型，使用ETO，然后随着产量的增加，在成长阶段转移到MTO。

• A product moves to MTS during the maturity stage and then during decline, when volume falls, moves back to the MTO to extend its life cycle with adjustments or revisions.
  产品在成熟期移动到MTS，在衰退期，当交易量下降时，回到MTO，通过调整或修订来延长其生命周期。

Choice of Processes and Layouts

过程和布局的选择

In reviewing the choice of manufacturing environments, we identified five possible types of environments. The manufacturing process choices that support these environments are reviewed below.

在回顾生产环境的选择时，我们确定了五种可能的环境类型。下面将回顾支持这些环境的生产过程选择。

There are three basic process choices with many variations. These are as follows:
有三种基本的过程选择以及很多变体。如下:

• intermittent (lot or batch) 间歇（分次或分批）
• flow 流程
  • repetitive, or line 重复式或线型
  • continuous 连续流
• project (fixed position) 项目(定位)

Intermittent Manufacturing

离散型制造

In an intermittent manufacturing process, goods flow through a series of workstations, rather than one-by-one on an assembly line.
在离散型制造过程中，货物通过一系列的工作站，而不是在装配线上一个接一个地流动。

• Jobs pass through functional departments in lots or batches.
  工作大批或分批地通过职能部门进行。

• The workstations are not dedicated to making one type of product. Instead, their machines and workers are flexible; general-purpose equipment can be used in making various products.
  工作站不是专门用来生产一种产品的。相反，他们的机器和工人是灵活的;通用设备可用于制造各种产品。

• This process is used when the production volume of a product is not high enough to justify dedicated equipments as in an assembly line.
  当一个产品的生产量不够大，不能像在装配线上那样装配专用设备时，使用此过程。

The layout of an intermittent process is called a process, job shop, or functional layout. Machines and operations often are grouped together in departments by functional specialties such as saw, lathe, mill, and so on. These departments are not dedicated to the production of just one group of products.

间歇过程的布局称为过程、作业车间或功能布局。机器和操作通常由功能专业如锯、车床、磨机等组成。这些部门不是专门生产一组产品的。

Flow Manufacturing

流式制造

In flow manufacturing processes, work flows through each work station's dedicated equipment at a nearly constant rate. Production volume is high enough to make a flow process economically feasible.

在流式制造过程中，工作以几乎恒定的速度通过每个工作站的专用设备。生产规模足够大，使流程在经济上可行。

There are tow types of flow: repetitive, or line, and continuous.

有两种类型的流:重复型或线型的，以及连续的。

Repetitive or line

重复型或线型

An example of this manufacturing process would be an assembly line that assembles discrete units, such as automobiles, at a constant rate without delays.

这种制造过程的一个例子是一条装配线，它以恒定的速度组装离散的单元，如汽车，而不会延迟。

• Machinery is dedicated to a limited range of products and generally is not multipurpose.
  机器专用于有限范围的产品，通常不是多用途的。

• This process is capital intensive, requiring a large financial commitment to launch the process.
  这个过程是资本密集型的，需要大量的资金投入来启动这个过程。

• The economics of flow, both repetitive and continuous, described below requires high volumes of production.
  以下所述的流式的经济性，包括重复的和连续的，需要大量的生产。

Continuous flow

连续流

This process involves transforming raw materials into products such as gasoline or steel by the use of mixing, chemicals, heating, cooling, or pressure.

这个过程包括通过混合、化学物质、加热、冷却或压力将原材料转化为汽油或钢铁等产品。

Continuous flow has the same dedicated machinery, fixed routing, high volume, and constant rate of production requirements as repetitive flow manufacturing.

连续流具有与重复流制造相同的专用机械、固定的路由、高容量和恒定的生产要求。

Advantages

优势

Higher volume and lower product variety give flow manufacturing some advantages over intermittent:
与间歇生产相比，高产量和低品种的产品具有一些优势:

• low WIP inventory 低在制品库存
• short throughput and manufacturing lead times 短吞吐量和生产交货期
• low unit costs 低单位成本

Project Manufacturing

项目制造

Project Manufacturing (Fixed Position)

项目制造(固定位置)

In project manufacturing, the product is made at one site. Usually project manufacturing involves large specially designed products such as ships, buildings, and some aircraft. The advantage of fixed position is that it often is not feasible to move materials and assemblies from one work station to another.

在项目制造中，产品在一个地点制造。项目制造通常涉及大型特别设计的产品，如船舶、建筑物和一些飞机。固定位置的优点是，通常将材料和组件从一个工作站移动到另一个工作站不可行。

The Manufacturing Supply Chain

制造供应链

In the previous section, we reviewed key decisions that manufacturers need to make to carry out the job of creating value for customers. These are decisions about the choice of
(1) manufacturing environments, or manufacturing strategies, and
(2) manufacturing processes and layouts.
These decisions are based on strategic-level decisions regarding what products to sell, what customers to sell them to, and how to gain competitive advantage while doing it.

在前一节中，我们回顾了制造商为实现为客户创造价值所需要做出的关键决策。这些都是关于选择的决定
(1)制造环境或制造策略
(2)制造工艺及布局。
这些决策是基于战略层面的决策，这些决策涉及到要销售什么产品，要向哪些客户销售产品，以及如何在此过程中获得竞争优势。

In this section, we address how a manufacturing company is a link in the supply chain that needs to coordinate its activities with other links in the supply chain. Then we address at a high level how the manufacturer's own internal supply chain needs to support its external relationships with suppliers and customers.

在本节中，我们将讨论制造公司如何成为供应链中的一个环节，需要将其活动与供应链中的其他环节协调起来。然后我们在更高的层次上解决制造商自身的内部供应链需要如何支持其与供应商和客户的外部关系。

The Supply Chain Concept

供应链概念

supply-chain-management-definitions.png

Every company that provides goods and services to customers has a supply chain, though it may not think of its business in such a way. The APICS Dictionary definitions for supply chain and supply chain management shown in the visual are specific to companies that transform raw materials into finished goods, such as manufacturers, but the underlying principles also are applicable to companies in other sectors, including the service industry.

每个向客户提供商品和服务的公司都有一个供应链，尽管它可能不会这样看待自己的业务。图上的"供应链"和"供应链管理"的APICS字典定义是专门针对将原材料转化为成品的公司，如制造商，但其基本原则也适用于其他行业的公司，包括服务行业。

Views of Supply Chain

供应链视图

basic-supply-chain-external.png

External View of the Supply Chain

供应链的外部视图

Visual 1-38 is a conceptual diagram of a generic supply chain, showing the manufacturer as the so-called anchor of the supply chain. We will refer to this as a manufacturer's view of the external supply chain. Even then, it is only one type of a supply chain -- a business-to-consumer supply chain in which its products are passed to the consumer without further physical transformation. Another type of supply chain is a business-to-business supply chain in which its products become components of other products.

图1-38是一个通用供应链的概念图，展示了制造商作为所谓的供应链的锚点。我们将把这作为制造商对外部供应链的看法。即便如此，它也只是供应链的一种类型——企业对消费者的供应链，在这种供应链中，它的产品无需进行进一步的物理转换就可以传递给消费者。另一种类型的供应链是企业对企业的供应链，其产品成为其他产品的组成部分。

The basic elements of the external supply chain are as follows:
外部供应链的基本要素如下：

• suppliers 供应商
• producers or manufacturers 生产商或制造商
• distributors 分销商
• retailers 零售商
• consumers 客户
• flow of information, cash, and goods and services
  信息流、现金流、商品流、服务流

The visual shows that the manufacturer is only one link in the supply chain and is not necessarily the most influential. To succeed, it must coordinate its operations as effectively as possible: with upstream suppliers and downstream distributors and retailers, both of whom add to the price of the final product. It must convert its relationship in the supply chain from a horizontal link to horizontal integration. It would be hard to find a manufacturer that owns not only the raw materials but also the manufacturing and distribution operations.

从图中可以看出，制造商只是供应链中的一个环节，不一定是最有影响力的环节。为了取得成功，它必须尽可能有效地协调其运作:与上游供应商和下游分销商和零售商，两者都增加了最终产品的价格。它必须将其在供应链中的关系从水平链接转换为水平集成。很难找到一家不仅拥有原材料，还拥有生产和分销业务的制造商。

Internal Views of the Supply Chain

供应链内部视图

The external view of the supply chain shows the relationship of the manufacturer with suppliers and customers in the context of the marketplace. Within each manufacturer there is also an internal supply chain consisting of supply chain processes that are managed by various functional organizations. How well the processes operate depends on how well the interests and performance measures of each of the functional players are balanced in the interests of the organization at large.

供应链的外部视图显示了在市场环境下制造商与供应商和客户的关系。在每个制造商内部也有一个由不同职能组织管理的供应链过程组成的内部供应链。流程运作的好坏取决于每个功能参与者的利益和绩效度量如何平衡于整个组织的利益。

Conventional internal supply chain view

传统的内部供应链视图

conventional-internal-supply-chain-view.png

This simplified view of a conventional supply chain summarizes one aspect of the problem with internal supply chains. They tend to operate as functional silos rather than a set of integrated business processes involved in transforming raw materials into products that customers are willing to buy.

这种传统供应链的简化视图概括了内部供应链问题的一个方面。他们倾向于作为功能性竖井而不是一套集成的业务流程，将原材料转化为客户愿意购买的产品。

In the conventional approach to managing the internal supply chain, production, procurement or purchasing, and distribution generally have compartmentalized operations in response to conflicting or uncoordinated critical success factors and performance measures.

在管理内部供应链的传统方法中，生产、采购或分销一般都是按照相互冲突或不可协调的关键成功因素和绩效措施来划分业务部门。

Conflicts in conventional supply chains

传统供应链中的冲突

In the conventional supply chain, procurement perceives no stockouts and low purchasing costs as critical success factors. The lowest purchase cost is preferred even if materials must be purchased in larger volumes than necessary. Production would maximize machine utilization, resulting in the buildup of WIP and finished goods inventory. Distribution would tend to have high service levels and would attempt stockout prevention. The result is that inventory levels within the company are likely to be high.

在传统的供应链中，采购将不缺货和低采购成本视为关键的成功因素。最低的采购成本是最好的，即使材料必须超出必需的大量购买。生产将最大化机器的利用率，导致在制品和成品库存的增加。分销将倾向于具有较高的服务水平，并尝试预防缺货。其结果是，公司内部的库存水平可能会很高。

Cross-functional view

跨职能视图

cross-functional-supply-chain-view.png

A manufacturer's cross-functional supply chain is baed on the efficiency of manufacturing operations but not at the expense of other corporate goals -- such as cost reduction and revenue growth, market growth, shorter lead times, better quality, and customer satisfaction and value. A cross-functional supply chain can better balance the interests of manufacturing and functions such as marketing and finance.

制造商的跨职能供应链依赖于生产运营的效率，而不是以牺牲其他企业目标为代价——比如降低成本、增加收入、市场增长、缩短交货期、提高质量、客户满意度和价值。跨职能供应链可以更好地平衡制造业的利益和市场、财务等职能。

As Visual 1-40 illustrates, the conventional supply chain is subset of the cross-functional supply chain. The visual shows that a manufacturer's supply chain can consist of procurement, production, and distribution, as well as the customer order management and reverse logistics aspects of customer service.

如图1-40所示，传统的供应链是跨职能供应链的子集。可视化显示了制造商的供应链可以包括采购、生产和配送，以及客户订单管理和逆向物流方面的客户服务。

There are also processes other than those directly involved in handling and transforming materials, such as marketing and sales and product development. There also are support services that technically are not primary value-adding processes, but nonetheless are very important. These can include departments such as finance, information, human resources, and general administration.

除了直接涉及处理和转换材料的过程之外，还有其他过程，如市场营销和销售以及产品开发。也有支持服务，技术上不是主要的增值过程，但仍然是非常重要的。这些部门可以包括财务、信息、人力资源和综合管理等部门。

conflicts-in-conventional-supply-systems.png

Supply Chain Organizational Issues

供应链组织问题

Inherent Supply Chain Conflicts

内在的供应链冲突

As mentioned earlier, conventional supply chains often do not properly resolve conflicts or balance the interests of different supply chain functions or departments. This is due to inherent conflicts of interest among various functions in the following areas:
如前所述，传统的供应链往往不能很好地解决冲突或平衡不同供应链功能或部门的利益。这是由于下列各领域各职能之间固有的利益冲突:

• production efficiency in manufacturing and finance
  制造业和金融业的生产效率

• high levels of customer service in marketing and finance
  在市场营销和财务方面提供高水平的客户服务

• low inventory investment within finance
  财务内部的低库存投资

These conflicts never go away. They affect decisions made at every stage of the manufacturing planning and control (MPC) process that will be introduced in the next section. Note that the conflicts do not always occur between different functions, and sometimes happen within the same function -- as in the case of finance.

这些冲突永远不会消失。它们影响将在下一节介绍的制造计划和控制(MPC)过程的每个阶段所做的决策。注意，这些冲突并不总是发生在不同的职能之间，有时也发生在相同的职能中——就像在财务中一样。

These conflicts afflict every supply chain -- even well-managed, cross-functional supply chains. They are summarized below.

这些冲突困扰着每一个供应链——甚至是管理良好、跨职能的供应链。总结如下。

If marketing sets an objective to increase revenue, then it will require

如果市场营销的目标是增加收入，那么它就需要

• high customer service
  高客户服务

• low production efficiency, or the ability to interrupt production schedules, short runs and so on
  低生产效率，或有中断生产计划、短时间运行等能力

• high inventories in order for products to always be in stock
  高库存是为了使产品永远有货

If production sets an objective to reduce manufacturing costs, then it will require
如果生产设定了降低制造成本的目标，那么就需要

• high production efficiency -- including long production runs, few products, and few steps, which will result in
  高生产效率——包括长时间生产、少量产品和步骤，这将导致生产效率提高

(1) less flexibility to meet the need for other products and
灵活性差，不能满足其他产品的需要
(2) lower customer service
降低客户服务

• high inventory of raw materials and finished goods to eliminate production interruptions.
  原材料和成品库存高，以杜绝生产中断。

If finance sets a goal to increase profit, increase cash flow, and reduce investment, it will require
如果财务设定了增加利润、增加现金流和减少投资的目标，它将需要

• high customer service to maximize profit
  高客户服务，实现利润最大化

• high production efficiency to minimize costs
  高生产效率，实现成本最小化

• low inventory to minimize investment.
  低库存以减少投资

Resolving Conflicts

解决冲突

Supply chain management has the ability to evolve and to apply certain processes for dealing with these conflicts. These processes include
供应链管理有能力发展和应用某些过程来处理这些冲突。这些过程包括

• sales and operations planning to balance inventory, customer service, and production efficiency during the production planning process
  在生产计划过程中平衡库存、客户服务和生产效率的销售和运营计划

• clear responsibility for the materials management function that facilitates planning and manages the day-to-day tradeoffs that are sometimes necessary
  对物料管理职能负有明确的责任，以促进规划和管理日常需要的权衡

• application of productivity systems such as lean, quality systems, and theory of constraints to speed up processes and reduce waste to offset the effects of the conflicts.
  应用生产力系统，例如精益、质量系统和约束理论，以加速过程和减少浪费，以抵消冲突的影响。

Performance Measures

绩效度量

For an effective evaluation of organizational performance, it is important to measure performance. There are numerous potential measures, so organizations should focus on key performance indicators (KPIs) that are the best supporting indicators of overall organizational performance. It also is important to employ a mix of KPIs that represent the three types of measures:

要对组织绩效进行有效的评价，就必须对组织绩效进行衡量。有很多潜在的措施，所以组织应该关注关键绩效指标(KPI)，这些指标是组织整体绩效的最佳支持指标。同样重要的是采用混合的KPI来表示三种措施:

• Strategic performance measures relate to the long-term goals of a business. Examples include profitability, market share, growth, and productivity.
  战略绩效衡量与企业的长期目标相关。例子包括盈利能力、市场份额、增长和生产率。

• Tactical performance measures relate to intermediate-term goals and objectives to support the organization's strategic plan. Examples include adherence to production plans and budgets, percentage of on-time delivery, and inventory turns.
  战术执行措施涉及中期目标和支持本组织战略计划的目标。例如遵守生产计划和预算、准时交货百分比和库存周转。

• Operational performance measures relate to daily work routines. Examples in conventional management include work-center cycle times, utilization, and efficiency.
  操作绩效指标与日常工作程序相关。常规管理的例子包括工作中心周期时间、利用率和效率。

KPIs can extend to measures outside of the organization and along the supply chain.
KPI可以扩展到组织之外和供应链上的度量。

Balanced Scorecard

平衡计分卡

An organizational tool for assessing performance against KPIs is the balanced scorecard. It is a scorecard table that lists KPIs and the actual performance against them for a certain time period. Typically, balanced scorecards are assessed at specific intervals to determine if corrective action is needed. The scorecard gives a balanced perspective by including metrics and performance from the following areas:

衡量KPI绩效的组织工具是平衡计分卡。它是一个记分卡表，列出了KPI和在特定时间段内对它们的实际绩效。通常，平衡计分卡会以特定的间隔进行评估，以确定是否需要采取纠正措施。记分卡提供了一个平衡的视角，包括以下方面的指标和表现:

• customer perspective 客户角度
• business process perspective 业务流程的角度
• financial perspective 金融角度
• innovation and learning perspective 创新与学习视角

KPIs used in these four areas should not be generic; they need to measure performance in areas critical to a particular company's overall strategic and tactical goals.

在这四个领域中使用的KPI不应该是通用的;他们需要衡量特定公司总体战略和战术目标的关键领域的绩效。

Role of Materials Management

物料管理的角色

From a manufacturing supply chain management standpoint, materials management is a vital coordinating function. It balances the conflicting objectives of marketing, production, and finance by managing the flow of materials. This means balancing the company's resources with demand.

从制造供应链管理的角度来看，物料管理是一个重要的协调功能。它通过管理材料的流动来平衡营销、生产和财务的冲突目标。这意味着要平衡公司的资源和需求。

Materials management is involved in two major areas.
材料管理涉及两个主要领域。

• MPC -- Materials management is the function responsible for the coordination and facilitation of MPC. It is and integrated planning system that serves as the template for manufacturing resources planning (MRP II) and ERP systems that we will address in the next section.
  MPC——物料管理是负责MPC的协调与便利的职能。它和集成规划系统作为制造资源规划(MRP II)和ERP系统的模板，我们将在下一节讨论。

• Physical supply and distribution -- Materials management is responsible for manning the purchasing and control of production materials, controlling WIP, and controlling the storage, shipping, and distribution of the finished product.
  实物供应与分销——物料管理负责生产物料的采购与控制，控制WIP，控制成品的储存、运输和配送。

The organizational title for the individual or office in charge of the materials management function today is likely to be something other than materials manager or materials management. Other examples of job titles are supply chain manger and logistics manager.

今天，负责材料管理职能的个人或办公室的组织名称很可能不是物料经理或物料管理部。如供应链经理和物流经理。

Manufacturing Planning and Control (MPC)

MPC

Planning is needed to ensure and mange the availability of resources, such as material and capacity, to satisfy customer demand.
需要计划以确保和管理资源的可用性，如物料和能力，以满足客户的需求。

Objectives of Manufacturing

制造业的目标

As a business function, manufacturing has a number of objectives. These can be summarized as producing the right goods
作为一个商业功能，制造业有很多目标。这些可以概括为生产正确的产品

• of the right quality 合适的质量
• in the right quantities 合适的数量
• at the right time 正确的时间
• at the right cost. 正确的成本

When you look closely at a manufacturing company, you should see that its organization, business processes, and resources generally are structured in such a way as to achieve these objectives.

当您仔细观察一个制造公司时，您应该会发现它的组织、业务流程和资源的结构通常是为了实现这些目标。

The challenge for a manufacturing company is to achieve high levels of customer satisfaction by making sure that available production capacity is sufficient to produce the volume, types, and quality of products that customers want -- when and where they want them. This is summarized in Visual 1-47 as achieving a balance between the materials needed for production and the capacity required, which is the role of the MPC planning system.

制造公司面临的挑战是，通过确保现有的生产能力足以生产顾客想要的产品的数量、类型和质量，从而达到高水平的客户满意度。图1-47将其概括为在生产所需的材料和所需的能力之间实现平衡，这就是MPC规划系统的作用。

A key aspect of customer satisfaction in a manufacturing company is the management of the vast amount of data that support key decisions. Data governance encompasses the overall management of the accessibility,usablitiy, reliability, and security of data in order to ensure data record accuracy. This is especially important because of the increasing amounts of critical electronic data.

在制造企业中，客户满意度的一个关键方面是对支持关键决策的大量数据的管理。数据治理包括数据的可访问性、通用性、可靠性和安全性的全面管理，以确保数据记录的准确性。这一点特别重要，因为关键的电子数据越来越多。

Priority and Capacity Planning

优先级和产能计划

Before addressing MPC, let's review the important concepts of priority and capacity. You will hear a lot about these two terms in the next four sessions of this course.

在处理MPC之前，让我们回顾一下优先级和产能的重要概念。在接下来的四节课中你会听到很多关于这两项的内容。

Priority and capacity are related concepts.
优先级和产能是相关的概念。

• Priority relates to demand and capacity relates to supply.
  优先级涉及需求，产能涉及供应。

• Priority refers to what product or component is needed, how much of it is needed, and when.
  优先级是指需要什么产品或组件，需要多少，何时需要。

• Capacity refers to how much production capacity and other resources are available to meet priorities.
  产能是指有多少生产能力和其他资源可以满足优先事项。

• Priority and capacity planning is the process of balancing resources and demand.
  优先级和产能计划是平衡资源和需求的过程。

Priority and capacity planning defines the planning phases of MPC.
优先级和产能计划定义了MPC的计划阶段。

Manufacturing Planning and Control Hierarcy

制造计划与控制等级

Manufacturing's functional role in the supply chain is to produce products and services. This role is defined by strategic business and marketing objectives and is supported by upstream and downstream supply chain operations.

制造业在供应链中的作用是生产产品和服务。该角色由战略业务和营销目标定义，并由上下游供应链操作支持。

MPC is the system used by manufacturing to recognize the demand for products, plan the resources required to produce them, and execute and control production. MPC also is the framework for more detailed business processes and best practices that have been developed to implement the different aspects of the system.

MPC是制造业用来识别产品需求、规划生产所需资源、执行和控制生产的系统。MPC也是为实现系统的不同方面而开发的更详细的业务流程和最佳实践的框架。

The following are the salient points of MPC, which will be covered in more detail in Session 2 though 5 of this course:

以下是MPC的要点，本课程第2至5课将更详细地介绍这些要点:

• MPC uses a top-down planning approach in which planning and execution activities are formally related to the organization's strategic and business plans. Note that lean manufacturing uses a similar planning process called hoshin planning, which we will discuss further in Session 9.

MPC采用自顶向下的计划方法，其中计划和执行活动正式地与组织的战略和业务计划相关。请注意，精益生产使用了一个类似的计划过程，称为方针规划，我们将在第9节中进一步讨论这个过程。

• MPC applies a layered approach to planning
  MPC采用分层的方法进行计划

  • Business planning -- long-term planning in dollars or other currencies
    商业计划——以美元或其他货币进行的长期计划

  • Sales and operations planning, or the production plan -- medium to long-term planning at the product family level; for example, bicycles
    销售和运营计划，或生产计划——产品家族层面的中长期计划;例如,自行车

  • Master scheduling, or the master production schedule (MPS) -- short to medium-term planning at the end-item product level; for example, specific bicycle model or options
    主排程，或主生产排程(MPS)——终端产品级的短期到中期计划;例如，特定的自行车模型或选项

  • MRP -- short-term planning at the end-item or product-component level; for example, bicycle components
    MRP -终端项目或产品部件级的短期规划;例如,自行车组件

• MPC validates the production plan using resource planning.
  MPC通过资源计划验证生产计划。

• MPC also validates the priority plans developed at the master scheduling and MRP levels against capacity available at those levels.
  MPC还根据主调度和MRP级别上的可用产能验证主调度和MRP级别上开发的优先计划。

• MPC is a closed-loop system, meaning that plans continually are adjusted to account for events that occur before or during production, such as
  MPC是一个闭环系统，意思是计划不断地调整，以考虑生产前或生产期间发生的事件，例如

  • internal events, including production delays, material shortages, and quality issues
    内部事件，包括生产延迟、材料短缺和质量问题

  • external events, including changes in customer demand, late supplier deliveries of raw materials, and economic conditions.
    外部事件，包括客户需求的变化、供应商延迟交付原材料、经济状况。

• Requires cross-functional coordination of three key functions -- manufacturing, marketing, and finance -- as well as input from engineering, including research and development or product development; human resources; distribution; quality; and supply chain or materials management
  需要跨职能协调三个关键职能——制造、营销和财务——以及来自工程的投入，包括研发或产品开发;人力资源;分销;质量;以及供应链或物料管理

The business world requires speed, responsiveness, and flexibility, and MPC cannot succeed without the support of information technology (IT) and applications software. As we will discuss later, advances in IT led to integrated, software-enabled versions of MPC called MRP II. MPC also became the template for the manufacturing modules of ERP systems, which have succeeded MRP II.

商业世界需要速度、响应能力和灵活性，没有信息技术(IT)和应用软件的支持，MPC无法成功。正如我们稍后将讨论的，IT方面的进展导致了集成、软件支持的MPC版本MRP II。MPC也成为ERP系统制造模块的模板，ERP系统已经成功地实现了MRP II。

From MRP to ERP

MPC is IT-driven. Manufacturers rely heavily on manufacturing planning software applications that support and integrate the key MPC processes we have just reviewed. In most cases, process and software integration has occurred as companies have implemented ERP systems. Let's review how integration of processes and software applications evolved.

MPC是IT驱动的。制造商严重依赖于生产计划软件应用程序，这些应用程序支持并集成了我们刚才讨论过的主要MPC过程。在大多数情况下，流程和软件集成发生在公司实施ERP系统的时候。让我们回顾一下流程和软件应用程序的集成是如何发展的。

From MRP to MRP II

MRP

As we will learn in Session 4, MRP is one of the most important business processes in MPC. Based on the due dates for end items in the master schedule, MRP establishes the priority plan for the due dates and order quantities for the components of end items. MRP software applications for the development and management of the priority plan primarily serve the needs of the production and purchasing departments.

正如我们将在第4课学到的，MRP是MPC中最重要的业务流程之一。MRP根据主排程中最终项目的到期日，为最终项目的各个组成部分建立到期日和订单数量的优先计划。MRP软件应用为开发和管理的优先计划，主要服务于生产和采购部门的需要。

Closed-Loop MRP

闭环MRP

It was only master of time before manufacturing planning software evolved beyond MRP to closed-loop MRP, which
在制造计划软件从MRP发展到闭环MRP之前，只管理了时间

• links the production plan to the more detailed MPS in the early stages of the MPC process
  在MPC进程的早期阶段将生产计划链接到更详细的MPS

• links the production planning, master scheduling and MRP to capacity planning and management to ensure that production resources can accommodate capacity requirements
  生产计划、主计划和MRP联系到产能计划和管理，以确保生产资源能够满足产能要求

• supports the closed loop, which provides structured and timely feedback on the status of work orders already released -- including start dates, due dates, and quantities -- to enable changes and adjustments to priority plans and production schedules by MRP and production activity control
  持闭环，对已经发布的工作订单状态(包括开始日期、到期日期和数量)提供结构化和及时的反馈，以便MRP和生产活动控制对优先计划和生产计划进行更改和调整

• assists with reporting of cost data for cost and financial accounting purposes.
  为成本和财务会计目的协助成本数据的报告。

From an IT standpoint, closed-loop MRP usually is supported by function-specific software applications with their own databases and a low to moderate level of cross-functional integration.
从IT的角度来看，闭环MRP通常由特定于功能的软件应用程序支持，它们有自己的数据库和低中水平的跨功能集成。

From MRP II to ERP

MRP II

MRP II was the next step in the business process and software application evolution of MPC, supported notably by better IT infrastructure and more emphasis on cross-functional coordination of supply chain-related business processes. As a formal manufacturing planning and information system, MRP II adds the following functionality:

MRP II是MPC业务流程和软件应用程序演进的下一个步骤，主要支持更好的IT基础设施，更强调与供应链相关业务流程的跨职能协调。MRP II作为一个正式的生产计划和信息系统，增加了以下功能:

• Coordination of production, finance, and marketing functions in developing sales and production plans during a sales and operations planning process
  在销售和运营规划过程中协调生产、财务和市场职能，制定销售和生产计划

• Collaboration between marketing and production on a weekly or even daily basis to deal with the impact of changes in demand on the MPS including due dates and order quantities
  市场营销和生产之间每周甚至每天的协作，以处理需求变化对MPS的影响，包括到期日和订单数量

• Adjustments to the priority plan at the MPS and MRP levels based on capacity shortages
  根据产能短缺调整MPS和MRP级别的优先计划

• Fuller integration of operational reporting applications and heightens the involvement of key functions such as production, marketing, and finance in the MPC process.
  更全面地集成运行报告应用程序，并加强生产、营销和财务等关键职能在MPC过程中的参与。

In summary, MRP II integrates business processes and software applications and heightens the involvement of key functions such as production, marketing, and finance in the MPC process.

综上所述，MRP II集成了业务流程和软件应用程序，并加强了生产、营销和财务等关键功能在MPC流程中的参与。

Evolution to ERP

进货到ERP

The evolution to ERP systems in the 1990s was enabled by the availability of new and even better information technologies, notably faster transaction processing speeds, and more powerful data base applications that can support

上世纪90年代的ERP系统的发展得益于新的甚至更好的信息技术，特别是更快的业务处理速度，以及更强大的数据基础应用程序。

• the vision of enterprise wide, cross-functional, and seamlessly integrated software applications
  企业范围、跨功能和无缝集成软件应用的愿景

• software applications based on best-of-breed business processes or templates within functional areas that are integrated cross-functionally
  基于最佳业务流程或功能领域内跨功能集成的模板的软件应用程序

• companywide access to a single database that serves a multitude of functions
  公司对一个提供多种功能的单一数据库的访问

• integration of MPC functions with the requirements and activities of upstream suppliers and downstream customers and distributors.
  MPC功能与上游供应商、下游客户和分销商的需求和活动整合。

ERP evolved from MRP II in the manufacturing sector as a more technology-enabled and best practice-based software. It is by nature a top-down system. Individual functions such as marketing, finance, sales, manufacturing, research and development, human resources, distribution, and logistics are designed from both a business process and application software standpoint to work toward the same business objectives.

ERP是从制造部门的MRP II演变而来的，它是一种更技术辅助式的、基于最佳实践的软件。它本质上是一个自上而下的系统。市场营销、金融、销售、制造、研发、人力资源、分销和物流等各个职能都是由业务流程和应用软件的角度设计的，目的是为了实现相同的业务目标。

The Impact of New Systems and Philosophies

新系统和哲学的影响

Impact of New Systems and Philosophies

Many companies have adopted the principles and practices of lean manufacturing and quality systems such as total quality management (TQM) , six sigma, and the theory of constraints (TOC). This trend will likely continue in the near future.

许多公司采用精益生产和质量体系的原则和实践，如全面质量管理(TQM)、六西格玛和约束理论(TOC)。这种趋势可能在不久的将来继续下去。

These systems and philosophies have had a major impact on manufacturing companies'

这些系统和理念对制造企业在以下方面产生了重大影响

• reduced lead times 缩短交货期
• reduced inventory levels 降低库存水平
• improved worker productivity 提高工人的生产力
• improved product quality 改善产品质量
• cost reductions 成本降低
• increased profitability 提高盈利能力

Lean focuses on 精益关注

• identifying and eliminating non-value-added activities and resources, which are considered waste
  识别和消除被认为是浪费的非增值活动和资源

• creating continuous flow in manufacturing as a result of pull by the customer
  由于客户的拉动，在制造过程中创造连续的流程

• empowering employees 授权员工

• continuous improvement 持续改进

TQM is a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. Key principles include
TQM是一种通过顾客满意来获得长期成功的管理方法。关键原则包括

• customer focus 客户关注
• identifying costs of quality 识别质量成本
• taking action to solve problems 采取行动解决问题
• continuous improvement 持续改进

Six sigma is an approach that focuses on reducing defects by decreasing process and product variation. Important elements include

六西格玛是一种注重通过减少过程和产品变化来减少缺陷的方法。重要的元素包括：

• variation causes defects 变异引起的缺陷

• a goal to have no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities, which constitutes a six sigma-level performance
  目标是每百万次机会不超过3.4个缺陷，这构成了6个sigma级别的性能

• continuous improvement and problem solving to reduce variation and defects.
  持续改进和解决问题以减少变化和缺陷。

Lean six sigma is a combined approach for process improvement and problem solving based on lean and six sigma methodologies.

精益六西格玛是基于精益和六西格玛方法的过程改进和问题解决的结合方法。

TOC is a holistic management philosophy based on the principle that systems have constraints limiting their ability to meet goals. Its objective is to achieve throughput goals by identifying and managing a few leverage points.

TOC是一种基于以下原则的整体管理哲学:系统具有限制其实现目标能力的约束。它的目标是通过识别和管理一些杠杆点来实现吞吐量目标。

We will cover these concepts in more depth later in the course. Lean and quality systems will be covered in Session 9, and TOC will be covered in Session 10.

我们将在后面的课程中更深入地讨论这些概念。精益和质量系统将在第9课中讨论，TOC将在第10课中讨论。