《如何成为学术论文写作高手：针对华人作者的18周技能强化训练》一书清晰地阐述了学术论文写作的各个部分，如何撰写，华人作者常见的写作错误和改正方式，简短、基础的英语语法规则，如何培养良好的写作习惯以保持积极和高效的写作状态，一些向学术期刊投稿的小建议，每个学生都需要了解的重要词汇等内容。
本系列读书笔记记录了书中的要点，列举了一些相关例句。由于作者正处于写论文的痛苦中，所以筛选的例句大都是我论文中可能用到的句式。
系列目录：
如何成为学术论文写作高手(1):撰写引言
如何成为学术论文写作高手(2):撰写方法部分
（持续更新）
1 如何写引言
引言是论文中最精美的部分。引言的目的是表达在研究背后的动机，并为之辩护；引言也需要展示论文的研究背景，帮助读者清晰地理解你的目的；同时引言需要抓住读者的注意力。一篇好的引言，需要包含以下主要成分：
- 说明研究的广泛主题或话题；
- 解释论文的学术重要性；
- 总结可用的文献，引用和你的研究最相关的之前的研究。此外，如果重复了之前的研究，则应在书面引文中明确说明；
- 研究空白和前后矛盾的讨论需要跟随在文献总结之后，强调研究的主要贡献的好处；
- 引言中应清楚说明研究中要解决的研究问题，指导研究的具体目标，进行研究的背景以及研究中使用的分析单位。
1.1 主题或话题
由于你的论文也会被领域外的读者阅读，因此以一种简单的但有效的方式写论文，有助于读者理解你研究的重要性。此外，更广泛的介绍你研究的主题或话题，能够帮助你的读者清楚地理解你的研究是什么。以下的要点需要注意：
- 避免在引言中使用技术的术语；
- 不要从研究的问题或假设开始写引言；
- 定义技术的术语或者概念；
1.2 学术重要性
一篇论文的学术重要性可以通过描述该主题先前研究的缺失，以及突出文献中的空白和矛盾之处来确定。然而，需要避免写一个某个领域全面的回顾。
1.3 文献
现有文献的总结需要简洁的描述出来，并且需要包含最近的、直接关联的研究。如果该研究是先前研究的复制，则本节中应提及该研究的简要介绍以及引文。
1.4 知识空缺
由于研究的目的是扩展某个具体主题的知识，一个研究需要处理文献中具体的知识空缺、矛盾和争论。此外，在本部分中应提及研究的主要贡献，这将有助于说明研究的重要性。
1.5 研究问题和目的
这个部分需要清楚地说明以下几个方面：
- 本文解决的研究问题；
- 指导研究的具体研究目的；
- 研究进行的背景；
- 论文中使用的分析单元。
1.6 轮廓结构
该部分应仅包括整个论文流程的简要概述。
在完成引言的部分的时候，你需要保证你的引言回答了以下五个问题：
- What is the Problem?
- Why is the problem important?
- What conflicts or unanswered questions does your research address?
- What previous findings are you challenging or extending?
- What solution do you propose?
2 What is the Problem？
通过清楚地介绍你的主题领域开始你的引言
在引言的前几句中，使用标题中的关键字直接聚焦您的主题。这将使你立即专注于你的主题，而无需讨论过于笼统的信息。
总结其他研究以提供上下文，关键术语和概念，以便您的读者可以理解过于笼统的信息
关键策略是在介绍实验或研究之前总结您对问题的了解，你可以对文献做一个总体概述，但是不要包含在讨论中你要使用的，具体的或者太长的解释。目的和假设的陈述应侧重于文献综述中的一般信息，这些信息应支持你研究的特定主题。通过做这些，你能够帮助读者和评审者理解你的研究。
2.1 描述所研究的问题
2.1.1 确立一般主体的重要性
One of the most essential current discussions in Natural language processing is ...
X is the leading cause of Y in natural language processing.
In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...
2.1.2 强调时间
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...
Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ...
2.2 总结其他研究来提供背景，关键术语和概念
2.2.1 相关文献的通用描述
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ...
The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with ...
What we know about X is largely based on empirical studies that investigate how ...
2.2.2 对先前工作的引用
Author studies have attempted to explain ...
Recent evidence suggests that ...
Several attempts have been made to ...
2.2.3 解释关键词或术语
Throughout this paper, the term X refers to ...
The term X is generally understood to mean ...
The term X has been applied to situations where ...
2.3 简单的三段定义
| 术语 | 定义 | 解释 |
|---|---|---|
| Biology is defined as | a brach of the natural | that is concerned with the study of living organisms and their interaction with each other and their enviroment. |
| Ecology may be defined as | a scientific study | that is concerned with the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their natural environment. |
| Research may be defined as | a systematic process | that consists of three elements or components:(1)a question, problem, or hypothesis; (2)data; and (3) analysis and interpretation of data. |
2.3.1 引出研究者的对术语的定义
Author was apparently the first to use the term ...
Author wrote that X is a "..."
According to a definition provided by author, X is ...
2.3.2 常用主题分类
The work of Aristotle fall under three categories: (1)dialogues and ...; (2)collections of facts and ...; and (3) systematic works.
There are two basic approaches currently adopted by research on X. One is the Y approach, and the other is ...
2.3.3 介绍一系列的因素
There are three reasons why language research has become so important.These are ...
The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are ...
2.3.4 参考其他作者的因素清单
Jamison(2008) suggested three conditions for its acceptance. First, X should be ... Second, it needs to be ... Third, ...
Martinez and Rodriguez (1999) listed X, Y and Z as the major causes of infant mortality.
Patrickson and Cook(2007) argued that there are two broad categories of Y, which are as follow: (1) ... and (2) ...
2.4 引言的时态
- 在陈述或报告已确定的事实、研究重点的陈述、目前接受的方法时，使用一般现在时；
Fine motor skills require integrating muscular, skeletal and neurological functions.
The aim of this paper is to determine the principal mechanical parameters of thin film deposited on a circular glass substrate.
The salt in most oceans is approximately 97% sodium chloride(Ritchie, 1999).
- 当指单个先前的研究、研究重点的陈述（自己的研究）时，使用过去时。
Kurtz(2008) found that instructors allocated equal time to each group.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not a genetic correlation exists between performance levels at high and low temperatures.
- 在报告从许多之前研究中得到的发现时，使用现在完成时。
Previous studies have indicated the need to further examine X.
- 在表达预期结果或提供未来建议时，请使用带情态动词的现在时，例如could，may和might
This research may provide an alternative to the common field measurement of soil erosion and runoff.
3 Why is the problem important?
作为一名研究人员，你的首要任务就是“推销”你的研究问题。如果评审不相信你的问题真的是个问题，他们也就不会有兴趣阅读解决问题的方法。因此，引言需要明确引出你的研究问题，并且解释你的问题为什么重要。
3.1 文献回顾
文献综述构成了文章的理论基础，并讨论了特定领域中已发布的信息。通常，一个文献综述提供了对过去研究新的解释，将之前的解释和新的解释结合起来，或者追踪该领域的知识发展过程。
在写文献回顾时，需要解释以下四个问题：
- Which aspects should be included in a literature review?
- How should the information in a literature review be synthesized?
- How should the literature review be structured?
- What writing style should be used when writing a literature review?
3.1.1 Which aspects should be included in a literature review?
一个有效的文献回顾需要包含以下部分：
- 简要讨论该研究在何处以及如何符合该领域的更广泛观点;
- 文章中使用的所有关键概念和构造的定义；
- 综合先前相关研究结果的讨论;
- 现有方法的总结，解释以前的研究方法如何构成当前的研究方法;
- 对要检验的假设的理论支持;
3.1.2 How should the information in a literature review be synthesized?
由于文献综述不是论文按时间顺序的总结，它必须总结现有的知识。文献回顾要求不能抄袭和改写之前的工作。按照信息的不同分为三个类型：Definitions, Attributes or Factors, 和 Opposing viewpoints。
3.1.2.1 Definitions
所有概念或构造以及技术术语都需要在文献中定义。最好在论文中首次提及后定义概念或术语。但是这些定义不能简单从先前研究中复制，应该提供一个reviewed definition。此外，这些定义不能在文献综述中连续地列举。
3.1.2.2 Attributes or Factors
通常，当讨论一个相似的主题时，作者会列举不同的属性、因素或问题。这些因素表明特定方法或技术的有效性。然而，这些属性或因素不能仅仅在文献综述中列举出来，而应该写包含这些因素的总结。
3.1.2.3 Opposing Viewpoints
研究相同问题的作者会提出不同的观点。这些观点可以作为文献综述中的讨论点进行比较。另外，相反的观点需要在文献综述中明确解释不同。为了进一步加强文献综述，应阐述支持的具体观点以及简要说明接受这些观点的原因。
3.1.3 How should the literature review be structured?
以下的要点能够帮助你更高的构造文献综述：
- 将正在讨论的特定主题放在相关但更广泛的上下文中，然后将讨论重点放在更具体的问题上;
- 标题应简短，并应提供有关文献的详细概述；
- 使用相关图表并讨论对研究至关重要的几种结构之间的比较;
- 清楚地定义技术术语和概念；
- 所提供的文章应该与标题相关；
- 为研究的假设提供了简要的动机。
3.1.4 What writing style should be used when writing a literature review?
文献综述通常需要易于阅读和理解，这就需要尽可能避免使用技术行话、不熟悉的术语和短语、未定义的技术缩写。另外，一个清晰简洁的文献综述流程能够帮助读者更好的理解研究的整体过程。
在文献综述中陈述研究问题，并明确阐述尝试的研究如何回应这些问题。在进行此操作时，请简要阐述所使用的方法，并说明你的研究在以前的研究上进行改进或提供与先前研究的对比。
3.2 参照单个之前的研究
- 研究者做句子的主语
Author performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that ...
carried out a number of investigations into the ...
- 强调研究
The study of the structural behavior of X was first carried out by Ran et al.(1986).
A recent study study by Author involved ...
A longitudinal study of X by Author reported that ...
- 研究主题做主语
X is the central focus of a study by Author, in which whe author found ...
To determine the effects of X, author et al. (2005) compared ...
3.3 参照其他作者的工作
Rao(2003) listed three reasons why the English language has become so dominant.
Jones(2003) provided in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle, showing its relevance to contemporary times.
Some analysts have attempted to draw fine distinctions between ...
3.4 参考其他作者的想法
According to Smith(2003), preventive medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world.
4 What conflicts or unanswered questions does your research address?
你需要在研究领域的现有研究中找到冲突，问题或未尝试的方法，并进行实验来解决。你可以通过突出问题或争议或确定您研究领域的知识差距来强调你的研究问题。
4.1 在你的研究领域中，强调问题或者争议
However, a major problem with this type of application is ...
There is increasing concern that some Xs are being diasdvantaged ...
Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks.
The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ...
4.2 在你的研究领域中，强调知识空白
However, far too little attention has been paid to ...
In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ...
So far, this method has only been applied to ...
4.3 比较(compare)和对比(contrast)
通过对比两个事物的相似点和不同点，能够增加我们对这两个事物的理解。许多段落的功能是比较或对比，而开头的句子通常用术语进行对比。
4.3.1 引导句：不同点
X is different from Y in a number of respects.
There are a number of important differences between X and Y.
Author found distinct differences between X and Y.
4.3.2 引导句：相同点
The mode of processing used by the right brain is similar to that used by the left brain.
The effects of nitrous dioxide on human health are similar to those of ground level ozone.
There are a number of similarities between X and Y.
4.3.3 在一个句子中比较
In contrast to oral communities, it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies.
Compared with people in oral cultures, people in literate cultures organize their lives around clocks and calendars.
Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as placing pegs in holes on a board.
Furthermore, men are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills.
4.3.4 比较两个句子
It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. By contrast, many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth.
Tests show that women generally can recall lists of words or paragraphs of text better than men. Conversely, men usually perform better on tests that require the ability to rotate mentally an image to solve a problem.
5 What findings are you challenging or extending?
5.1 批评参考文献和它们理论的句子
批评你的参考文献和他们的理论是很危险的。你需要注意以下六点：
- 永远不要将您的批评变成对参考文献作者的人身攻击；
- 您的批评应该是有效的，有充分根据的，并应扩大研究领域;
- 不要为了批评而批评；
- 要意识到，如果你的批评是错误的，你将毁坏你在该领域的名声；
- 询问你的领域中的其他研究者，你的批评是否有效；
- 您批评的人很有可能就您论文的接受做出决定。
5.2 批判性地介绍疑问、问题和局限性
One question that needs to be asked, however, is wheter ...
A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...
It seems that Jones' understanding of the X framework is questionable.
Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account.
Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that ...
However, this method of analysis has numerous limitations.
5.3 说明一个研究的弱点
However, the main weakness of this study is its failure to address how ...
Simth makes no attemp to differentiate between various types of X.
However, the research does not take into account pre-existing ... such as ...
5.4 提供结构性的建议
5.5 介绍其他人对你的参考文献的评价
Many analysts have argued that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argued that ...
Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but they ...
Most recent arguments against X have been summarized by Smith and Jones (1982).
6 What solution do you propose?
简要地描述您的研究（假设或者研究问题）、实验设计或方法和使用这个方法的原因。
6.1 确保清楚地陈述了您研究的目的或假设
目的陈述通常出现在引言的结尾位置，经常作为最后一段的主题句。您可以使用两种标准的陈述形式：
The purpose of this study is to ...
This study investigates three possible mechanisms to explain the ...
6.2 提供您解决问题方法的理由
简要地描述您是如何解决问题的。这部分内容通常跟在目的陈述的后面。您可以尝试回答这些问题：
- 为什么你选择这类实验或实验的设计？
- 这个特殊模型的优点是什么？
- 它在回答您要问的特定问题方面有什么优势?
但是不要在引言中描述你研究中的具体技术或方法。你可以在方法部分提供这些信息。如果你使用一个新的技术或方法，引言中需要描述这个新方法相对于之前使用方法的优点。
6.3 重点和目标
This paper focuses on/examines/assesses ...
The purpose of this paper is to review recent research on the ...
The aim of this paper is to determine/examine ...
6.4 给出为什么采用特定方法的原因
The best method to adopt for this investigation is to ...
The questionnaire design is based on ...
The X method is one of the more practical ways to ...
7 引言的要点
- 从一般到具体：连接现实世界的问题和研究文献，然后到你的实验
- 吸引您读者的兴趣：回答问题“你做了什么”和“我为什么要关注”
- 清楚地表达问题和解决方法、问题和你的研究设计、之前研究和你的实验的联系
- 尽可能使用主动语态
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